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So help me God in presidential oaths

• Introduction
• George Washington's 18th century oath history
• George Washington did not say shmG
• No 18th and only one 19th century president appended shmG
• New shmG "tradition" myth created in 20th century
• Partial bibliography for preceeding.
• More George Washington myths and non-sequiturs

Preface

The research for this article is a collaborative effort with contributions from many individuals. At the end of November, 2004, Attorney Michael Newdow sent an e-mail to the Director of the First Federal Congress Project at George Washington University to see whether he could obtain more information about the 1789 bill to regulate the taking of an oath or affirmation as prescribed by Article six of the Constitution. Director Charlene Bickford's reply included the following comment about George Washington's first presidential oath of office recitation: "After much back and forth with the editors of the 'Papers of George Washington' [namely, Senior Editor Philander D. Chase, University of Virginia] and research in the sources [Documentary History of the First Federal Congress] that we have here, we were unable to locate any contemporary account [among the many eyewitness & newspaper accounts] that reported that he said those words." Mr. Newdow promptly passed this information to a historical and legal researcher and writer who requests anonymity and the late USAF LT. COL (Ret) Glen P. Goffin. Ray Soller and Mathew Goldstein also joined the research effort. This article is being written by Mathew Goldstein.

The phrase 'so help me God' is found in latin "Sic me adjuvet Deus" in the statutes of Charlemagne in 802 A.D. A similar phrase is found in pagan Norse law according to Macmillan's Magazine, "Ordeals and Oaths" by E.B. Flor, May, 1876; pgs 8-9. Ulfliot, representing Icelandic settlers, traveled to Norway and was tutored by a Northman, Thorleif the Wise, about their laws in A.D. 925. This a translation of the oath from Ulfliot's law as it appears in the old Icelandic manuscript "Book of Settlement" or "Landnama":

A ring of two ounces or more in weight had to lie on the altar in each chief temple. Each priest had to wear the ring on his arm at all assemblies over which he himself presided, having previously reddened it in the blood of the animal which he himself had sacrificed there. Every man who required to do legal business at a law court had first to take an oath on that ring, and name two or more witnesses. "I name [M. and N.] witnesses herein," he had to say, "that I take an oath on the ring, a lawful oath, ---so help me Frey and Njörd and almighty Thor, as I shall pursue (or defend) this suit, or bear witness, or give verdict or judgment, according to what I know to be most right and true and in accordance with the law.

A short summary of what is probably the first opposition in what is now the United States of America to government oaths including the phrase "so help me God" can be found in an article in the periodical "Church and State", the official publication of Americans United for Separation of Church and State, "The forgotten founder" by Rob Boston, Church and State, April 2003. In 1635 Roger Williams, then a pastor of a Salem Massachusetts church, argued that civil officials should have no authority in religious matters. He was forced to flee that Puritan theocracy after its General Court found him guilty of promoting views that were "erroneous and very dangerous". As related in Washington's General: Nathanael Greene And the Triumph of the American Revolution by Terry Golway, 2004, page 13

The New World, however, quickly proved to be no refuge from the divisions and dissents of the Old. William shocked the citizens of Boston when he asserted that political authorities should not have the power to enforce religious dogma. More disputes followed as Williams preached the importance of individual conscience, insisting that the phrase "so help me God" should be removed from the colony's oath of allegiance. It was, he said, offensive to those who didn't believe in God.

Those who didn't believe in God? This was too much for the Bay Colony's fathers, and no doubt its mothers as well. Williams was banished from the colony, and so early in 1736, he and his band of followers, including Dr. Greene, slogged through the snow and ice of a New England winter to found a new refuge, which they called Providence

Today, both federal civilian and military personnel and new citizens who do not want to append 'so help me God' to their Oath of Office or Oath of Citizenship may take the oath without that phrase. The Supreme Court held in Cole v. Richardson, 405 U.S. 676 that federal and state governments cannot condition employment on taking oaths that infringe on the rights guaranteed by the Constitution. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) held (EEOC # 01890285 dated April 2, 1990) that even though an Oath is required by statute, it must be modified as necessary to accommodate an individual’s religious rights. Also, White House Guidelines on Religious Exercise and Religious Expression in the Federal Workplace, August 19, 1997, state that "where an agency’s work rule imposes a substantial burden on a particular employee’s exercise of religion, the agency…should grant the employee an exemption from that rule, unless the agency has a compelling interest in denying the exemption and there is no less restrictive means of furthering the interest."

Introduction

The oath of office for United States president, as specified in Article II the constitution, does not include the phrase "so help me God." Contrary to the Architect of the Capital description of President Washington's Inaugural, the the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies, the 54th Presidential Inaugural Official Guide Book (page 28), the 54th Presidential Inaugural Official Program (page 21), Donald R. Kennon, Chief Historian, United States Capitol Historical Society, Dr. Marvin Kranz, historical specialist, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress , the Public Broadcasting Service Online Newshour , the CNN Presidential Inaugural Timeline , WETA Explore DC, the BBC Guide to 2001 inauguration ceremony, the History News Network, C-SPAN in the classroom, Chief Justice Rehnquist writing for the majority in ELK GROVE UNIFIED SCHOOL DIST. V. NEWDOW, Justice Scalia's dissent in McCREARY COUNTY, KENTUCKY, et al., PETITIONERS v. AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION OF KENTUCKY et al., an article "Here's the official oath of office", Chicago Sun-Times, Jan 21, 2001, a 02/13/2001 opinion of the Supreme Court of Missouri (SC82412) Robert E. Oliver, et al., v. State Tax Commission of Missouri, et al., the description of President George HW Bush's inaugural address in the Senate Congressional Record for January 20, 1989, President George Bush's National Day of Prayer statement May 1, 2008, and many others, there appears to be no reliably corroborated contemporaneous evidence that any president (excluding Jefferson Davis of the Confederacy) voluntarily appended those words to the oath of office until Chester A Arthur's 1881 inauguration. Both the New York Times (page 5) and the Washington Post of September 23, 1881 and many other newspapers reported that Chester Arthur appended those words to his Oath of Office.

Since about March 2007, the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies website has hosted a "So Help Me God" video on their "History: Facts and First" web page that features a Senate Historical Office employee (Beth Hahn) claiming that all presidents, starting with George Washington, appended that phrase to their oath office. Daniel Walker Howe, Rhodes Professor of American History Emeritus, Oxford University and Professor of History Emeritus, University of California, said of that video "I am persuaded by your presentation of the lack of evidence to substantiate the surprising claim being made by Beth Hahn." (email 07-11-2008)

Several educational websites, after being alerted about this lack of historical evidence, have removed the unsubstantiated claim that GW appended shmG, including websites sponsored by the White House Historical Association, U. S. Capitol Historical Society, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Shenandoah Caverns & American Celebration on Parade. Dr. Juretta Jordan Hecksher, a Library of Congress’s Digital Reference Team employee, wrote in an email that a colleague of hers at the Library of Congress, Kenneth Drexler, who was asked to research this issue, concluded "The question was whether or not there is primary-source evidence that Washington said 'so help me, God' in 1789. The short answer is that I could find no evidence that he did." A reproduction of the email can be found on History is Elementary Blog, November 12, 2006. The revelation that "so help me God" is another George Washington myth is slowly going public and spreading. One of the earliest internet logs to post on this topic is Boston 1775 blog, October 14, 2006 with and update Boston 1775 blog, April 30, 2008 and a third blog to cover this topic is Positive Liberty blog, November 24, 2006. Hopefully, more action will be taken to correct the historical record on web sites, in future books and statements of historians, comments by Supreme Court Justices, and maybeeven politicians. A new book, Democracy's Big Day: The Inauguration of our President 1789-2009, by Jim Bendat, 2008, iUniverse Star, New York, p. 21, correctly characterizes the GW appended shmG claim as a "legend" and on page 23 says:

There are no contemporary accounts indicating that Washington actually said "so help me God"

The latest effort to defend the claim that George Washington appended shmG to his first presidential oath of office is in an appendix of the book So Help Me God — The Founding Fathers and the First Great Battle Over Church and State, Reverend Forrest Church, September 2007, Harcourt Press that is titled "Did George Washington say, 'So help me God,'?" . The Rev. Church makes two new arguments which are both mistaken. One is that David Humphreys, who was Washington's "principal aide" and who accompanied General Washington to Federal Hall Inauguration Day, rejoiced at George Washington's "civil piety" in an article published nine days after the inauguration in the Pennsylvania Mercury, May 9, 1789. That civil piety rejoice quote is part of a concluding paragraph of a serialized letter that started back on April 9, 1789, and continued regularly in the Tu, Th, & Sa weekly editions for the greater part of a month. The letter was addressed to "Mr. Humphreys" and at its conclusion on May 9th the letter is signed by "Apocalypsophilos". The Philadelphia Federal Gazette, 9 May 1789 featured a reprint of this article. The introduction to the reprint reads: "Extract from an essay published by Mr. Humphreys, in the Pennsylvania Mercury, this morning." The publisher of the Pennsylvania Mercury at that time was Daniel Humphreys. David Humphrey's father Daniel died September 2, 1787 and David's brother Daniel was born May 4 1779. So the PA Mercury publisher Daniel couldn't be either of them. The anonymous author of this letter to the publisher of the PA Mercury explained that it was written in response to an "alleged" Indian speech which he characterized as "a stupid nonsensical squib thrown out against the christian religion by some person, who preferred heathenism to christianity." Reverend Church has acknowledged he was mistaken in identifying the author of the letter as David Humphreys and promised to correct the version of his book's appendix that he maintains on the internet.

Reverend Church's second new argument is that Thomas Jefferson's March 2, 1801 letter to Chief Justice John Marshall sought reassurance from Marshall that he wouldn't be expected to append shmG to his oath of office. This is also incorrect. The first law passed by Congress was titled "act to regulate the time and manner of administering certain oaths". Section 4 of that law read " ... all officers ... under the authority of the United States, shall, before they act in their respective offices, take the same oath or affirmation ... " As a former Secretary of State and Vice President, Jefferson would have taken that oath. Article II of the constitution specifies a presidential oath. Unlike Washington and Adams, Jefferson was not involved in writing or approving either of the oath laws (as minister to France from 1785 to 1789 he was unable to attend the Constitutional Convention and he served as the first Secretary of State under George Washington from 1789-1793). Jefferson's letter sought nothing more or less than clarification from the Chief Justice whether, as President-elect, he had to recite both oaths or just the presidential oath specified in the constitution. Jefferson noted that the oath "prescribed by the Act of Congress" was similar to ("seems to comprehend the substance of") the constitutional oath and expressed skepticism that Congress had the authority to specify an additional oath for President. The Chief Justice replied that, in his judgement, the constitutional oath is "the only oath to be administered".

Another argument made by Forrest Church is that Washington Irving was correct with the other details of the inauguration and therefore his claim that George Washington appended shmG should be given the benefit of any doubt. Some discussion of why it is prudent to not trust the reliability of Washington Irving's and Rufus Wilmot Griswold's writings in general appears later in this essay. However, to respond specifically to this particular argument now, the reason that other historical details of the inauguration appear to be correct is that they were based on the previously published biography of George Washington by Mr. Sparks, from George Washington's manuscripts in the Department of State, and apparantly copied (without acknowledgement or permission) from Memoir of the life of Eliza S. M. Quincy, ed. E S Quincy, Boston [Printed by J. Wilson] 1861. But Mr. Sparks' biograpahy, George Washington's manuscripts, and Eliza Quincy's Memoir all fail to support the claim that GW appended shmG. Furthermore, there is a discrepancy in Washington Irving's account of the inauguration as described in the bibliographical note for Part 3 of Washington and His Colleagues: A Chronicle of the Rise and Fall of Federalism, by Henry Jones Ford, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1918

The style maintained by Washington early became a subject of party controversy and to this may be attributed a noticeable variation in accounts given by different authors. For instance, Washington Irving, who as a child witnessed the first inauguration parade, says in his "Life of Washington" that the President's coach "was drawn by a single pair of horses." But the detailed account given in the "New York Packet" of May 1, 1789, the day after the ceremony, says that "the President joined the procession in his carriage and four." The following authorities may be consulted on the point:

B.J. Lossing, article in The Independent, vol. xli, April 25, 1889.

Martha J. Lamb, article in Magazine of American History, vol. xx, December, 1888.

GW exhibited an extreme reticence to disclose his personal feelings in general and on religion in particular. Historian Paul Boller, whose book on GW and Religion published over 35 years ago is still considered one of the best works on the subject, wrote, "When it came to religion, GW was, if anything, more reserved than he was about anything else pertaining to his life." Bishop William White, the Anglican clergyman who was well acquainted with GW wrote, "I knew no man who seemed so carefully to guard against the discoursing of himself or of his acts, or of anything pertaining to him." Historian Dorothy Twohig, retired editor of the GW Papers, once made this comment: "It took me more than 12 years, working almost daily with George Washington, to get a sense of who the man was. He was so cautious, so reserved, so concerned with precedent and with his reputation that he rarely committed to paper anything for which he could be held responsible." George Washington often used the word "Providence" along with a remarkable number of different names for deity such as "the supreme disposer of all events", "the Almighty ruler of the universe", the "great governor of the Universe", and dozens of others. His use of the word "God" in contexts where he was expressing his own belief, as opposed to either describing other people's beliefs or repeating statements written by others, was relatively infrequent.

George Washington's 18th century oath history

In colonial Virginia and North Carolina, all justices of the peace, vestrymen, officers in the militia and other appointed officials of the King were required to take the following series of four oaths as a condition of appointment. All four oaths appear in Old Church Ministers and Families of Virginia In Two Volumes, by Bishop Meade, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1857 Vol. II pp. 41-2.

1. Oath of Allegiance

   I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to his Majesty, King George the Second. So help me God.

2. Oath of Abjuration

   I do swear that I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure, as impious and heretical, that damnable doctrine and position that Princes excommunicated or deprived by the Pope, or any authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or any other whatsoever. And I do declare that no foreign Prince, Prelate, Person, State or Potentate, hath, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, power, superiority, preeminence or authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this realm. So help me God.

3. Oath of Allegiance

   I do truly and sincerely acknowledge and promise, testify and declare, in my conscience, before God and the world, that our Sovereign Lord, King George the Second, is lawful and rightful King of this realm and all his Majesty’s dominions and countries hereunto belonging; and I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my conscience that the person pretended to be the Prince of Wales during the life of the late King James, and since his decease pretending to be, and taking upon himself the style and title of the king of England, or by the name of James III, or of Scotland by the name of James VIII, or the style and title of King of Great Britain, hath not any right whatsoever to the crown of this realm, or any other dominion hereunto belonging; and I do renounce, refuse and abjure any allegiance or obedience to him, and I do swear that I will bear faithful and true allegiance to H. M. King George II, and him will defend to the utmost of my power against all traitorous conspiracies and attempts whatsoever which shall be made against his person, crown or dignity; and I will do my utmost to endeavor to disclose and make known to his Majesty and his successors all treasonable and traitorous conspiracies which I shall know to be against him, or any of them; and I do faithfully promise, to the utmost of my power, to support, maintain and defend the successor of the crown against him, the said James, and all other persons whatsoever, which succession, by an act entitled ‘A act for the further limitation of the crown and better securing the rights and liberties of the subject,’ is and stands limited to the Princess Sophia, late Electress and Duchess, dowager of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being Protestants; and all other these things I do plainly and severally acknowledge and swear, according to these express words by me spoken, and according to the plain and common sense understanding of the same words, without any equivocation, mental evasion, or secret reservation whatsoever; and I do make this recognition, acknowledgement, abjuration, renunciation, and promise, heartily, willingly, and truly, upon the true faith of a Christian. So help me God.

4. Test Oath

   I do declare that I do believe that there is not any transubstantiation in the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, or in the elements of bread and wine, at or after the consecration thereof by any person whatsoever.;

The following is quoted from Professional Surveyor, September 2000, Volume 20, Number 8 History Corner:George Washington (1732-1799) Surveyor and Cartographer, Part 1, by Silvio A. Bedini. "In the records for Culpeper County for July 20, 1749: George Washington, Gent, produced a commission from the President and Masters of William and Mary College, appointing him to be surveyor of this county, which was read and thereupon he took the usual oath to his majesty's person and government and took and subscribed the adjuration oath and test, and then took the oath of surveyor, he became an officer of the colony. He was seventeen years of age at the time. LAWS OF VIRGINIA, OCTOBER 1748--22d GEORGE II. CHAP. XIX specifies the oath as "That he will truly and faithfully, to the best of his knowledge and power, discharge and execute his trust, office, and employment."

February 1, 1753 George Washington was appointed by the royal governor Robert Dinwiddle to the position of major in the Virginia militia. The following year he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and then colonel. Every commission officer in the militia was required to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, the abjuration oath, and subscribe the same, with the test. At the start of a court martial proceeding militia officers had to take this additional oath:

I A. B. do swear, That I will do equal right and justice to all men, according to the act of assembly, for the better regulation of the Militia.

From the Records of the County Court of Fairfax, February 16th, 1763: "George Washington Esqr. took the oaths according to Law repeated and subscribed the Test and subscribed to the Doctrine and Discipline of the Church of England in order to qualify him to act as a Vestryman of Truro Parish " in Pohick. The vestryman oath was as follows:

I, AB, as I do acknowledge myself a true son of the Church of England, so do I believe the articles of faith therein professed, and do oblige myself to be conformable to the doctrine and discipline therein taught and established; and that, as Vestryman of this Parish, I will well and truly perform my duty therein, being directed by the laws and customs of this country, and the canons of the Church of England, so far as they will suit our present capacity; and this I shall sincerely do, according to the best of my knowledge, skill, cunning, without fear, favor, or partiality; so help me God.

The Articles of Confederation, which had been proposed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 11, 1776 (before independence), and was agreed to by Congress on November 15, 1777, and "ratified and in force" on March 1, 1781, mentioned only one oath, and that was neither an oath of office nor an oath of allegiance, but a juridical oath to be administered to "commissioners or judges" temporarily appointed to decide "disputes and differences" between states of the confederation. The specified oath was "well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward".

The 1777 Virginia Oath of Allegiance was required for all "free born male inhabitants of this state, above the age of sixteen years"

Some people argue that in Washington's day not appending the words "So help me God" to a sworn oath would be an unthinkable departure from tradition. That is not true. Starting in 1776, all civil and military officers were required to sign a renunciation of allegiance to Great Britain. Here is the revised oath of allegiance adopted Feb. 3, 1778 by the Continental Congress (Journals of the Continental Congress, 196). No mention of God. Here are Continental Congress resolutions specifying the loyalty oath adopted February 3, 1778 (Journals of the Continental Congress, 197). The "So help me God" phrase is outside of the quoted oath apparently to make it optional. George Washington's Valley Forge oath of allegiance signed on May 12, 1778 has no "so help me God". However, the Continental Congress resolution establishing and regulating the Board of Treasury included an oath for Treasury officers adopted September 26, 1778 that includes the phrase "the presence of Almighty God."

An act to regulate the time and manner of administering certain oaths, which specified the oath for Congress and for the executive branch, excluding the President, was the first law passed by the U.S. Congress after the ratification of the constitution. The chronology, as reported in History of Congress: Exhibiting a Classification of the Proceedings of the Senate and the House of Representatives, by John Agg, Cary, Lea & Blanchard, Philadelphia, 1834, pages 12-14, is as follows:

1. April 6, 1789 the House appointed a committee to prepare a bill "to regulate the taking the oath or affirmation prescribed by the sixth Article of the Constitution." The House then voted for the following wording for their own oath: "I, A B a Representative of the United States in the Congress thereof, do solemnly swear (or affirm, as the case may be) in the presence of Almighty GOD, that I will support the Constitution of the United States. So help me GOD." Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 101.
2. April 8, Chief Justice of New York administered the [shmG] oath to House members. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 105.
3. April 14, a bill was presented to the House by Representative White. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 128.
4. April 16, the bill was read a second time and committed. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 157.
5. April 20, the House made itself into a committee of the whole to discuss an oath bill. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 183.
6. April 22, the House committee of the whole reported the bill with amendments. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 199.
7. April 25, the committee reported an amended bill to the whole House. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 208.
8. April 27 the House reads and approves the bill, which specifies "I do solemnly swear that I will support the Constitution of the United States.", and forwards it to the Senate for its consideration. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 215.
9. April 28, the Senate receives and reads the bill.
10. April 29 the Senate reads the bill a second time and organizes its committee to study the bill. Annals of Congress, Senate, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 26.
11. April 30, GW takes his oath of office as stated in the Constitution in the presence of Congress.
12. May 2, The Senate reports the bill with amendments which were concurred the next day.
13. May 5, the Senate reads the bill a third time and passed the Act "with amendments". Annals of Congress, Senate, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 31.
14. May 6, the House passed the amended bill with an added amendment that the state legislatures take the oath at their next session. Journal of the House Representatives: 1st-13th Congress, page 29.
15. May 7, the Senate agreed to bill as amended by the House. Journal of the House Represenatives: 1st-13th Congress, page 31.
16. May 18, the Senate appoints Mr. Lee to represent the Senate in a joint committee with the House
17. May 19, the House appoints Mr. Partridge and Mr. Floyd to the joint committee. Journal of the House Represenatives: 1st-13th Congress, page 38.
18. May 21, The engrossed bill was signed by the Speaker of the House. Journal of the House Represenatives: 1st-13th Congress, page 39.
19. May 22, the bill is presented to the president.
20. June 1, The House receives the message that GW signed the bill into law. Annals of Congress, Senate, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 43.
21. June 2, Speaker of the House administered the new oath to House of Representatives who had not taken previous oath. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 433.
22. June 3, Senate President John Adams administered the new oath to all Senators. Annals of Congress, Senate, 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 45.

The April 6 House committee consisted of Alexander White and James Madison of Virginia, Jonathan Trumbull Jr of Connecticut, Nicholas Gilman of New Hampshire, and Lambert Cadwalader of New Jersey. There's no statement in the 1st Congress' records which indicates that references to God, such as those which appeared in the ad-hoc oath of April 6, was subsequently debated by the House or Senate. The Senate committee consisted of Caleb Strong of Massachusetts, William Paterson of New Jersey, George Read of Delaware, William S. Johnson of Connecticut, and John Henry of Maryland. The debate on the oath law that was published in the Congressional Record focused on whether or not it would exceed the limits of federal authority for the oath law to apply to state officials. An amendment in the House offered by Richard Lee Brand of Virginia would have required the state legislatures to take the same oath with a penalty for violations. Madison objected and the amendment was defeated. Then an amendment applying the oath to the state legislatures, executive and judiciary without specifying a penalty for violations was passed by the Senate. The Senate amended bill was amended one more time and passed in the House. The Senate passed this version of the bill and it became the law. For more details see Negotiating the Constitution: The Earliest Debates over Original Intent, by Joseph Martin Lynch, 1999, Cornell University Press, pages 51-53.

The Judiciary Act of 1789 established a second oath for Supreme Court justices and district court judges. That oath ended with "so help me God." However, the act then says "Which words, so help me God, shall be omitted in all cases where an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath."

The Enlisted Oath, passed September 29 1789 (1st Cong., 1st sess., statute 1, chap. 25) reads:

I, A.B., do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) to bear true faith and allegiance to the United States of America, and to serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies or opposers whatsoever, and to observe and obey the orders of the president of the United States of America, and the orders of officers appointed over me.

I, A.B., do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) to bear true faith and allegiance to the United States of America, and to serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies or opposers whomsoever, and to observe and obey the orders of the president of the United States of America, and the orders of the officers appointed over me, according to the articles of war.

In 1862 "so help me God", was first appended to the federal oath of office. The Civil War-era members of Congress were intent on using the new "Ironclad oath" to keep Confederate loyalists out of the government.

The focus of the next three sections of this article is on the presidential oath as actually recited during inaugurations and the origins of the myth that George Washington appended shmG to his first presidential oath of office.

George Washington did not say shmG

Philander D. Chase, Senior Editor, The Papers of George Washington, University of Virginia , wrote in a November 17, 2005 email "... Washington as president was a remarkably strict constructionist of the Constitution, and it seems to me very unlikely that he would have altered or amended the constitutional oath regardless of whatever views he may have had on the subject, and his personal views as far as they are known seem to have been pretty comfortable with the oath as it appears in the Constitution." Charlene Bickford, Director, First Federal Congress Project, George Washington University , also confirms that there is no contemporaneous account of George Washington saying those words. In a November 29, 2004 email she wrote "In fact, the only contemporaneous account that repeats the oath, a letter of the French consul, Comte de Moustier, April 30, 1789 (PDF), states only the constitutional oath. We now believe that Washington consciously (he rarely did something that wasn't very calculated) repeated only the prescribed oath with no reference to God to show strict adherence to the Constitution." In a January 24, 2006 email she further wrote " We have also gone to the editors of the papers of other early presidents (Adams,Jefferson, and Madison) and they could find no proof that these founders said 'So help me God' either."

Inquiring with the Library of Congress about their web page Inaugurals of Presidents of the United States: Some Precedents and Notable Events which asserts that George Washington appended shmG to his first oath of office we got the following response on November 6, 2005:

Librarian 1: We apologize for not updating you on the status of your question. We have heard back from the staff in charge of the "'I Do Solemnly Swear . . .': Presidential Inaugurations" collection. They contacted Gerry Gawalt, a specialist in the Library's Manuscript Division, about your question. After speaking with him, they forwarded us the following response:

"[Gerry Gawalt says] that Douglas S. Freeman, Washington's preeminent biographer, cites a Tobias [sp. Tobias] Lear letter of May 3, 1789, to George A. Washington as evidence that Washington added "So Help Me God." While we don't have that letter, Gerry is willing to accept Freeman's work."

If you would like to follow up on this response, you can contact the Manuscript Division directly, addressing your message to Gerry Gawalt, using the web form at: ...

Best wishes, The Digital Reference Team

Library of Congress

George Washington, a Biography, Douglas Southhall Freeman, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948-1957, Volume 6, Ch. Viii, "Inauguration Day is not without Clouds, April 30, 1789", page 192 says:

Secretary of State [Samuel Otis], lifted the Bible and the red cushion from the table and took his station between Washington and the Chancellor. Otis stood with his face to the throng with his face to the throng; the judge and the President were in profile when seen from the street. After the briefest of pauses, when Washington saw the Judge was ready, he put his right hand on the Bible. "do you solemnly swear," asked the Chancellor, "that you will, to the best of your ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States?" "I solemnly swear," Washington answered - and repeated the oath. Reverently he added, "So help me God." He bent forward as he spoke and, before Otis could lift the Bible to his lips, he kissed the books. "It is done," Livingston announced, and, turning to the crowd, he made a broad gesture with his hand and shouted, "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" The roar of the throng came back in an instant, joyfully and sustained. Livingston's was taken up, and with it came clearly, "God bless our President." <50>

fn 50 Lear's letter of May 3, 1789, as supra [On pg 185 fn 3 reads: Lear's letter of May 3, 1789 to George A. Washington; Duke Univ. MSS]

However, Lear's letter reads as follows (page 4 of letter):

"They received the President in the most respectful manner; and the Vice President conducted him to a spacious elevated seat at the head of the Room.____ A dead and solemn silence prevailed! _____ In a few moments the Vice President arose, and informed the President all things were prepared to administer the OATH, whenever he saw fit to proceed to the Balcony to take it. He immediately descended from his seat and advanced through the middle door of the hall into the Balcony. ___ The Oath was administered in Public by Chancellor Livingston___ and the moment the Chancellor proclaimed him President of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA! the air was rended by repeated shouts and hurrars____ God Bless our Washington!"

Tobias Lear was George Washington's personal secretary. In addition to the aforementioned letter to George Augustine Washington, George Washington's nephew who was at that time managing the affairs of Washington's Mt. Vernon Estate, Lear's manuscript diary entry of April 30, 1789, [fn. 9 - Jared Sparks, The Writings of George Washington, pub. 1836; Vol. X, Appendix: p.463 ] that also appears on the University of Virginia website titled George Washington Papers - Documents, First Inaugural Address, 30 April 1789, New York reads as follows: "The Oath was administered in Public by Chancellor Livingston --- and the moment the Chancellor proclaimed him President of the United States, the air was rent by repeated shouts and huzzas" This essentially matches up with text from Lear's aforementioned letter. NY Journal & Weekly - Thursday May 7, 1789 says "here in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens the oath, prescribed by the constitution, was administered to him by the Hon. R. R. Livingston, the Chancellor of New York. The Chancellor then proclaimed him the PRESIDENT of the United States, which was followed by the instant discharge of 13 cannon, and loud repeated shouts ." The Daily Advertiser [Vol. V.] New York, FRIDAY, May 1, 1789 says "He took the oath prescribed by the constitution, which was administered to him by the Hon. R. R. Livingston, Esq; Chancellor of New - York. Immediately after he took the oath, the Chancellor proclaimed him President of the United States." Multiple first hand accounts are detailed in Washington's Birthday by Robert Haven Schauffer, 1910, New York, Moffat, Yard and Company, page 10, "Extracts from the Contemporary Newspapers and other Accounts of the Inauguration of our First President in 1789." Another copy of Washington's birthday, by Robert Haven Schauffler is on the Project Gutenberg eBook site.

Typical first hand newspaper accounts, none of which mention shmG, are found in the Gazette of the United States (NY) May 2, 1789:

When within a proper distance of the State-House the troops formed a line on both sides of the way. THE PRESIDENT passing through was conducted into the Senate Chamber, and introduced to both Houses of Congress.
Immediately after, accompanied by the two Houses, he was conducted into the Gallery adjoining the Senate Chamber, and fronting Broad-Street, where in presence of an immense concourse of citizens, the oath, prescribed by the Constiution, was administered to him by the Hon. R.R. Livingston, Esq. Chancellor of the State of New York The Chancellor then proclaimed him THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, which was followed by the instant discharge of 13 cannon, and loud repeated shouts: THE PRESIDENT bowing to the people, the air again rang with their acclamations: He retired with the two Houses to the Senate Chamber, where he made the following SPEECH

When they came within a short distance of the Hall, the troops formed a line on both sides of the way, and his Excellency passed though the ranks -- was conducted into the building, and in the Senate Chamber introduced to both Houses of Congress -- immediately afterwards, accompanied by the two Houses, he went into the Gallery adjoining the Senate Chamber, and fronting Broad-Street, where in preference of an immense concourse of citizens, he took the oath, prescribed by the Consecution, was administered to him by the Hon. R.R. Livingston, Esq. Chancellor of the State of New York
Immediately after he had taken the oath the Chancellor proclaimed him President of the United States:-- was answered by the discharge of 13 guns, and by loud repeated shouts: The President bowed to the people, the air again rang with their acclamations: His Excellency with the two Houses, then retired to the Senate Chamber, where he made the following SPEECH

Yesterday the great illustrious WASHINGTON, the favorite son of liberty, and deliverer of his country, entered upon the execution of the office of the First Magistrate of the united States of America; to which station he had been unanimously called by the united voice of the people. The ceremony which took place on this occasion was truly grand and pleasing, and every heart seemed anxious to testify the joy felt on so memorable an event. His Excellency was escorted from his house , by troop of Light Dragoons, and the legion under the command of Col. Lewis, attended by a committee of the senate and the House of Representatives, to Federal Hall, where he was formally received by both Houses of Congress, assembled in the Senate Chamber; after which he was conducted to the gallery in front of the hall, accompanied by all the Members when the oath prescribed by the Constitution was prescribed to him by the Chancellor of the State, who then said--
Long live GEORGE WASHINGTON, President of the United States; which was answered by an immense concourse of citizens, assembled on the occasion by the loudest plaudit and acclamation, that love and veneration ever inspired. His excellency then made a speech to both Houses, and then proceeded, attended by Congress, to St Paul.s Church, where Divine Service was performed by the Right Rev. Samuel Prevost, after which his Excellency was conducted in form to his own house. . . .

NEW-YORK, May 1 ...
Yesterday [April 30] at two o'clock was solemnly Inaugurated into office, our ILLUSTRIOUS PRESIDENT.

The ceremony was begun by the following procession from the Federal state-House to the President's house, viz.

Troop of Horse.
Assistants.
Committee of Representatives.
Committee of Senate.
Gentlemen to be admitted in the Senate Chamber.
Gentlemen in coaches.
Citizens on foot.

On their arrival, the President joined the procession in his carriage and four, and the whole moved through the principal streets to the State-House...
When the van reached the State-House, the troops opening their ranks formed an avenue, through which, after alighting, the President advancing to the door, was conducted to the Senate Chamber, where he was received by both branches of Congress, and by them accompanied to the balcony or outer gallery in front of the State-House, which was decorated with a canopy and curtains of red interstreaked with white for the formal occasion. In this manner the oath of office required by the constitution was administered by the Chancellor of this state, and the illustrious WASHINGTON thereupon declared by the said Chancellor PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.

I was extremely anxious to arrive here, in order to be present at the meting of the President and the two Houses. That event, however, did not take till Thursday last, when The President was qualified in the open galleryof the Congress House, in the sight of many thousand people. The scene was solemn and awful beyond description. It would seem extraordinary that the administration of an oath, a ceremony so very common and familiar, should in so great a degree excite the public curiosity; but the circumstances of his election -- the impression of his past services -- the concourse of spectators -- the devout fervency with which he repeated the oath -- and the reverential manner in which he bowed down and kissed the sacred volume -- all these conspired to render it one of the most august and interesting spectacles ever exhibited on this globe. It seemed, from the number of witnesses, to be a solemn appeal to Heaven and earth at once. Upon the subject of this great and good man I may, perhaps, be an enthusiast; but I confess that I was under an awful and religious persuasion, that the gracious Ruler of the Universe was looking down at that moment with peculiar complacency on an act which to a part of his creatures was so very important. Under this impression, when the Chancellor pronounced, in a very feeling manner, "Long live GEORGE WASHINGTON", my sensibility was wound up to such a pitch, that I could do no more than wave my hat with the rest, without the power of joining in the repeated acclamations which rent the air.

Early biographies of George Washington include The Monthly visitor, and entertaining pocket companion, Vol. I, "Memoirs of George Washington" 1797, London, H.D. Symonds [etc.], p. 435, which quotes the oath recitation. Washington's Political Legacies: To which is Annexed an Appendix, by J. M. Williams, 1800, Boston, p. 55. The five volume The Life of Washington, Vol. 5, by John Marshall, 1805-1807, p. 167. which was written at the request of a nephew of George Washington, Bushrod Washington. A 1926 re-publication of the original 5 volume set has a picture of a painting by Alonzo Chappell added with a comment underneath that is almost a word for word copy of Griswold's account that George Washington said "so help me God." It is important to note that this was a 1926 addition that appears nowhere in the original publication. Another was a popular biography Life of George Washington, by David Ramsay, 1807, New York, Hopkins & Seymour, p. 238. Life of George Washington: Commander in Chief of the American Army Through the revolutionary war, by Aaron Bancroft, 1808, London, John Stockdale, p. 372. The life of George Washington, by John Corry, 1809, New York, M'Carty & White, p. 236, which quotes the oath. The Life of George Washington, "Parson" Mason Locke Weems, 1810. Biographical memoirs of the illustrious General George Washington, by John Corry, 1812, Baltimore, W. Warner, p. 66, quotes the oath recitation. The Life of George Washington, by Anna C Reed and Thomas Sully and George Gilbert, 1829, Philadelphia : American Sunday-School Union, p. 219. A Life of Washington, Vol. II, by James Kirke Paulding, 1835, New York, Harper & Brothers, p. 169. Lives of the presidents of the United States, by Robert W Lincoln, 1836, New York, N. Watson & co., p. 57. Monuments of Washington's patriotism: containing a facsimile of his publick accounts, By Major William Jackson, 1838, City of Washington [D.C.]: P. Force, printer., page 9. Life of George Washington, by Jared Sparks, 1839, Pub. Tappan and Dennet, 1843 (Ch. XVI - p 408/409). The life of George Washington, first president of the United States, by Samuel George Arnold, 1840, New-York, T. Mason and G. Lane, p. 195. Pictorial life of George Washington: embracing anecdotes, by H Hastings Weld , 1845, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston, p. 161. The writings of George Washington; being his correspondence, addresses, messages, and other papers, official and private, by Jared Sparks, 1855, Boston, Little, Brown, and Co., p. 463. None of these biographies depicts Washington as saying shmG.

Early (shortly after he died), non-biography, accounts of the inauguration include Universal history, ancient and modern, from the earliest records of time, by William Fordyce Mavor, 1804, New York, Isaac Collins and son, p. 288, which quotes the oath. Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts in the state of New York. Vol. III., by Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, Websters and Skinners, 1814, Albany [N.Y.], p. 52. A geographical, historical, commercial, and agricultural view of the United States of America, by Daniel Blowe, 1820, London, Edwards & Knibb, p. 188, quotes the oath. The description of the city of New York containing its population, by James Keir Hardie, 1827, New York, Sam Marks, p. 120. State Sovereignty: And a Certain Dissolution of the Union, by Benjamin Romaine , 1832, New York, James Kennaday, p. 54. A noteworthy account of George Washington's inauguration is found in The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States, by Joseph Gales, 1834, Gales and Seaton (Vol. 1 p 26-27) says ...the oath was administered. After which, the Chancellor proclaimed "Long live George Washington, President of the United States." That same year is History of Congress: exhibiting a classification of the proceedings of the Senate, Volume I, by John Agg, Carey, 1834, Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, p.29. That is followed by The history and antiquities of New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania:, by John Warner Barber, 1841, New York, Dorr, Howland & Co., p. 470. A congressional manual; or, outline of the order of business : in the House of Representatives of the United States, by Joel B Sutherland, 1841, Philadelphia, Peter Hay & Co., p. 87. A Complete Descriptive and Statistical Gazetteer of the United States of America, by Daniel Haskel and J Calvin Smith, 1843. New York, Sherman & Smith, p. 17. The statesman's manual: The Addresses and Messages of the Presidents of the United States, by Edwin Williams, 1846, New York, E. Walker, p. 80.

Another book that quotes the oath recitation is A Pictorial History of the United States of America: from the discovery of the Northmen in the twentieth century to the present time, by John Frost, 1849, p. 188. That same year is New-York as it was, during the latter part of the last century. An anniversary address delivered before the St. Nicholas Society of the City of New York, December 1st, 1848, by William Alexander Duer, 1849, New York, Stanford and Swords, p. 27. Two years later is The Constitution of the United States of America : with an alphabetical analysis, by William Hickey, 1851, Philadelphia, T.K. & P.G. Collins, p. 192. Next is History of the U.S. of America, by Richard Hildreth, 1852, New York, Harper, p. 57. The Washington and Georgetown directory, strangers' guide-book for Washington, and congressional and clerks' register., Comp and pub. by Alfred Hunter, 1853, page A083. New York : a historical sketch of the rise and progress of the metropolitan city of America, by Daniel Curry, 1853, New York, Carlton & Phillips, p. 164. Still no shmG.

The earliest known published claim that George Washington added that phrase to his oath appears in a book that was initially published in 1854. The republican court; or, American society in the days of Washington, by Rufus Wilmot Griswold, 1854-1856, New York [etc.]: D. Appleton and company, Page 141. Griswold says that he pieced together his account after having a conversation with Dr. [John Wakefield] Francis and Washington Irving during which time Irving had related "his recollections of the scene." Griswold then recalled Irving’s presence during the ceremony by saying, "He had watched the procession till the President entered Federal Hall, and from the corner of New street and Wall street had observed the subsequent proceedings in the balcony." Washington Irving was six years old at the time of George Washington's inauguration. The corner of New Street and Wall Street, where Washington Irving is also identified as claiming he witnessed the inaugural in Century Magazine, volume 37, issue 6, April 1889, page 828, footnote 1 "The Inauguration of Washington" by Winthrop Clarence Bowen, is about 200 feet away from Federal Hall. From that distance and sideway viewing angle it is unlikely anyone would have a clear view of the activities or be able to hear what was said. Yet somehow, Griswold claims to know that George Washington recited the shmG phrase "with eyes closed". Irving, Griswold, and Dr. John W. Francis, who went to the same primary school as Irving, all attended the same James Fenimore Cooper Monument Association meetings in 1851 and 1852. The Reverend R. W. Griswold was born in 1815 so he could not have been an eyewitness. Dr. Francis was born in 1789 and so he couldn't have been Griswold's source either.

Published shortly after was Life of George Washington, by Washington Irving, 1857, New York,: G. P. Putnam &amp; co. Page 514. According to Pierre M. Irving and Washington Irving: A Collaboration in Life and Letters, by Wayne R. Kime, 1977, Waterloo, Ontario, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, page 133, Irving had the idea for a Washington biography in 1825, started research by the early 1840s, and was writing by the early 1850s. Furthermore, it's clear that Washington's first inauguration was important to Irving's conception of that biography. Up until May 1855, he planned to end with that scene. Even after Irving decided to cover Washington's presidential terms, he wanted the first inauguration to be the climax of volume 4 (see pages 260, 297, and 326 of Pierre M. Irving and Washington Irving). That means Irving was mulling over the inauguration scene, possibly even drafting it, well before he published.

Irving's nephew's long biography of his uncle The Life and Letters of Washington Irving, by Pierre Monroe Irving, 1869, G.P. Putnam's sons, doesn't mention Washington Irving viewing the first presidential inauguration, even briefly, although it did describe Irving's personal encounter with Washington as a young boy. Irving had discussed his biography project with his nephew since the 1840s, and Pierre was assisting his uncle with writing it in the mid-1850s. So if Irving was recalling the inaugural based on his personally witnessing the events then Pierre would certainly have been privy to this and presumably would have recognized its importance to his project. This lack of confirmation that Irving witnessed the first presidential inauguration thus leaves room for doubt that six year old Irving really was a witness to the inauguration as Griswold claimed.

Irving's account of the inauguration appears to have been taken (stolen) from the Memoir of the life of Eliza S. M. Quincy, ed. E S Quincy, Boston [Printed by J. Wilson] 1861 and inserted in his "Life of George Washington, " vol. iv, pp. 510, 513, 514, but without reference to their source. Eliza Morton Quincy was the younger sister to Jacob Morton, the person who it is said hastily retrieved the Masonic Bible for use during the inauguration. An earlier version of the same manuscript, published in 1856, omits the claim that George Washington appended "so help me God", the relevant excerpt of which can be found in the Century Magazine, volume 37, issue 6, April 1889, page 827, "The Inauguration of Washington", by Clarence Winthrop Bowen. Two other accounts of the inauguration claiming George Washington appended shmg were also published that year. Life and Times of Washington, John Frederick Schroeder, (Completed by R.W. Griswold), 1857, Johnson, Fry, and Company, New York, pg 308 and Memoirs of Washington, by Caroline Matilda Kirkland, 1857, New York: D. Appleton, p. 438.

Schroeder and Kirkland mingled with Griswold and Irving in the same New York city literary circles. Nowhere, among these four authors, does anyone specify just how they came by their claim that George Washington included the words "So help me God". Schroeder, an Episcopalian minister, died on Feb. 26, 1857 before he completed his book. Griswold had a hand in completing Schroeder's book. Kirkland mimicked Griswold and wrote, "..., he [Washington] was observed to say audibly, 'I swear!' adding, with closed eyes, as if to collect all his being into the momentous act - 'So help me God!'" It thus appears possible that the Reverand Griswold originated the assertion that George Washington appended "so help me God" and also had a hand in getting the other three authors to assert the same.

According to The Religious Beliefs of Our Presidents, by Franklin Steiner, 1936, most of Washington Irving's biography of George Washington is copied from the biography written by historian Sparks, Irving did little if any original research for his popular biography of George Washington. Similarly, in his article on Washington in the Dictionary of American Biography (1936), J C Fitzpatrick wrote, "Washington Irving, Life of GW (5 vols., 1855-1859) is satisfactory from most viewpoints, though its reliance on [Jared] Sparks lessens the confidence it would otherwise command." Sparks biography, although well researched, was written in a biased manner that exaggerates and promotes Washington's status as Hero. The following description of the bias of Jared Spark's biography of George Washington is from The Americans: The National Experience by Daniel J Boorstin "Part Seven - SEARCH FOR SYMBOLS Ch. 39 - The Mythologizing of George Washington"

Sparks followed the style of his day. His biography, which prefaced the writings, was pious, pallid, and reverential. The Hero was of commanding figure, symmetrical features, indomitable courage, pure character, and perfect judgment; "his moral qualities were in perfect harmony with those of his intellect." Sparks's appendix, "Religious Opinions and Habits", was an ingenious whitewash in which Washington's failure to attend communion became an argument for his religiosity. "He may have believed it improper publicly to partake of an ordinance, which, according to the ideas he entertained of it, imposed severe restrictions on outward conduct, and a sacred pledge to perform duties impracticable in his situation. Such an impression would be natural to a serious mind . . . a man of a delicate conscience and habitual reverence for religion." There was no passage in Washington's writings, Sparks noted, which expressed doubt of the Christian revelation. In a man of such Christian demeanor, what more conclusive proof that he was a true and tolerant Christian?

The writings were edited in a similar spirit. In selecting a mere eleven from what might have filled four times that many volumes, Sparks had ample freedom to ennoble his subject. While Sparks did not actually add passages of his own, he omitted passages at will without warning the reader and he improved the language when it seemed unworthy of the Hero. He explained all this in his introduction: "It would be an act of unpardonable injustice to any author, after his death, to bring forth compositions, and particularly letters, written with no design for their publication, and commit them to press without previously subjecting them to careful revision." Challenged later on his editorial methods, Sparks argued with charming naivete that he was really being true to his subject because Washington himself in his old age revised his early letters. Wherever Sparks had a choice he preferred Washington's own latter revision (again without warning the reader) in place of what had actually been written in the heat of the events. And Sparks made changes of his own. Where, for example, Washington had written of the "rascally crews" of New England privateersmen, Sparks emended the text to read simply the "crews." Washington's reference to the "dirty mercenary spirit" of the Connecticut troops became the "mercenary spirit," and their "scandalous conduct" was softened to their "conduct." "Old Put." became the more dignified "General Putnam." When Washington referred contemptuously to a small sum of money as "but a fleabite at present," Sparks improved it to read "Totally inadequate to our demands at this time." Sparks again and again and again changed the words to make them worthy of his Hero.

Washington Irving also wrote a popular myth-filled 1828 biography of Christopher Columbus. Among other inaccuracies, Irving's book claimed that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because Europeans believed that the earth was flat . In fact, few people at the time of Columbus’s voyage, and virtually no sailors or navigators, believed this. Most agreed that the earth was a sphere. Indeed, knowledge of the Earth's spherical nature was not limited to scientists: for instance, Dante's Divine Comedy is based on a spherical Earth. Columbus put forth arguments that were based on the circumference of the sphere. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy's claim that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, leaving 180 degrees of water. Griswold has a reputation as a slanderer for his character assassination of Edgar Allen Poe in his inaccurate “Memoir of the Author” which appears in the third volume of Griswold’s collected Works of the Late Edgar Allan Poe, published Sept. 21, 1850. Griswold claimed himself to be the executor of Poe’s literary estate (Poe's sister Rosalie actually had the legal right to his estate). As such, "he forged letters by Poe and made changes in the texts of Poe's work to support his lies, portraying Poe as a fiend and a drug addict."

After the mid 1850's many books and articles continue to claim that George Washington appended shmG. Examples include Mount Vernon and its associations, by Benson John Lossing, 1859, W.A. Townsend and Co., New York, p. 202. The reconstruction of the government of the United States of America: a Democratic empire advocated, by William B. Wedgwood, 1861, New-York, J. H. Tingley, Page 8. Washington and the American republic ... by Benson John Lossing, c1870, New York, Virtue &amp; Yorston, Page 94. Our first century: being a popular descriptive portraiture of the one hundred great and memorable events of perpetual interest in the history of our country, by Richard Miller Devens, 1876, Springfield, Mass., Toledo, O.: C. A. Nichols &amp; co., A. W. Mills. Page 144. Our country. A household history for all readers, by Benson John Lossing, With illustrations by Felix O. C. Darley, 1877, New York, Johnson, Wilson &amp; co., p. 1124.